<<please note, this is AI-generated, and so subject to ‘hallucinations’ — i.e., it may not be an accurate representation>>
Ali Abdullah Saleh was the president of North Yemen from 1978 and later of a unified Yemen from 1990 until 2012, rising to power through his own political and military efforts rather than external appointment. His rule was marked by a strong central government, but also by patronage networks and a complex relationship with tribal leaders. In 2011, inspired by the Arab Spring, widespread protests erupted against Saleh’s government, leading to a transition plan brokered by the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and the United Nations (UN), which ultimately resulted in Saleh’s departure from office. In 2012, his vice-president, Abd Rabbuh Mansour Hadi, was appointed as his successor through a one-man election as part of the transition. Hadi’s presidency was intended to be temporary, with a two-year mandate during which a National Dialogue Conference (NDC) was set to work on constitutional reforms, and he was often seen as a transitional leader rather than a full-fledged dictator.
Hadi’s government faced numerous challenges, including attacks by al-Qaeda, a separatist movement, and widespread corruption. Taking advantage of the government’s instability, the Houthis, a Zaydi movement from the north, launched a military offensive and seized the presidential palace in Sana’a in 2015, placing Hadi under house arrest and effectively staging a coup. Hadi managed to escape to Aden, where he declared himself the legitimate president, prompting Saudi Arabia to intervene militarily in Yemen.
Saudi Arabia led a coalition of nine countries in a military intervention aimed at restoring President Abd Rabbuh Mansour Hadi to power and defeating the Houthi movement in Yemen. The intervention, initially called “Operation Decisive Storm” and later renamed “Operation Restoration Hope,” included extensive airstrikes targeting Houthi-held areas, infrastructure, and civilian sites, leading to a devastating humanitarian crisis. Despite the continued military campaign, which has involved sea, air, and naval blockades, the coalition has failed to achieve its objectives, with the Houthis remaining resilient. In March 2015, In response, the Houthis have launched missile and drone attacks on Saudi Arabia, as well as targeting US and UK warships, and have justified their attacks on commercial shipping in the Red Sea as part of their stance against Israel and in support of Palestinians. The US and UK have provided military support to the Saudi-led coalition, conducting retaliatory strikes against Houthi positions, though the conflict has also resulted in casualties, including US Navy pilots in a “friendly fire” incident.
A historical remnant
The Zaydi imamate, a form of governance by descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, ruled parts of Yemen for centuries before being overthrown in 1962. The idea of restoring the imamate has become a key element in the Houthi movement’s ideology, which is often described as a Zaydi revivalist movement. Yemen has long been marked by intense power struggles, with various factions vying for control, a situation that has been further complicated by the involvement of external actors.
Yemen has long been a battleground in the Cold War and beyond, with external powers vying for influence since the 1960s. In the early years, Yemen was divided into two parts: the socialist South, backed by the Soviet Union, and the monarchist North, supported by the UK, USA, and Saudi Arabia. This division, akin to the splits seen in Vietnam and Korea, lasted for about 20 years, during which Yemen experienced extensive internal conflict and outside intervention. The North Yemen Civil War (1962-1970) was a proxy conflict between Egypt, which supported the newly established republican government, and Saudi Arabia, which backed the royalist forces. The royalists were mainly composed of Zaydi tribes, the same tribes that would later form the basis of the Houthi movement. Despite both being pro-American conservative monarchies, Saudi Arabia and monarchical Iran supported the royalists against the Egyptian-backed republicans. Israel also became involved, backing the royalists after learning that Egypt had used chemical weapons during the conflict, a move that alarmed the Israeli government. In response, Israel worked with the British to airlift weapons and supplies to the royalists, further intensifying the international dimensions of the
The Houthis
The Houthi Movement: Origins, Political Influence, and National Impact
The Houthi movement, formally known as Ansar Allah (Partisans of God), has grown into one of the most significant political and military forces in Yemen. Over the past few decades, it has dramatically reshaped the country’s political landscape, contributing to its ongoing civil war, creating a humanitarian crisis, and altering regional dynamics. Despite initially starting as a local movement motivated by grievances against political and economic marginalization, the Houthis’ rise to power has had profound consequences not only for Yemen but also for broader regional geopolitics.
Origins and History of the Houthi Movement
The origins of the Houthi movement trace back to the 1980s and 1990s, when it first emerged in the Saada region in northwest Yemen. This region has a long history as a stronghold of the Zaydi Shia sect, which dominated Yemen’s northern highlands for centuries before being overthrown in 1962 by a republican revolution that established the Yemeni Arab Republic. The Zaydi Shia, including the Houthi family, have since been marginalized by successive Yemeni governments, contributing to feelings of political and economic alienation.
The movement is named after the Houthi family, particularly Hussein al-Houthi, a religious leader and prominent critic of the Yemeni government. The Houthis belong to the Zaydi sada, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, and have historically held political power in Yemen’s northern regions. Hussein al-Houthi’s leadership and criticism of the government gained traction, particularly in response to the economic underdevelopment and marginalization of the Saada region. Initially, the movement began as a Zaydi revivalist movement under the name “Shabab al-Mu’min” (Believing Youth), aiming to address grievances related to economic neglect and the erosion of Zaydi religious practices.
In 2004, Hussein al-Houthi’s escalating opposition to the government led to his assassination by Yemeni forces. His death intensified the conflict, leading to a series of six wars between the government and the Houthi movement between 2004 and 2010. These wars, known as the Saada Wars, resulted in heavy casualties and further alienated the Houthis, deepening their resolve and sense of injustice. Although they initially lacked broad national support, the Houthis capitalized on growing frustration with the government’s inability to address the country’s broader political and economic challenges.
Political Evolution and the Houthis’ Role in Yemen’s Recent History
The Houthis’ transformation from a regional rebellion into a powerful political force accelerated in the wake of the 2011 Yemeni uprising against long-time President Ali Abdullah Saleh. The Houthis, who initially participated in the anti-Saleh protests, found themselves positioned to exploit the power vacuum that followed Saleh’s resignation. The Houthi movement’s alliance with Saleh—despite their long-standing opposition—helped them secure control of the capital, Sanaa, in September 2014. This marked a pivotal moment in Yemen’s political history, leading to the collapse of the Yemeni government and the resignation of President Abd-Rabbu Mansour Hadi.
In 2011, the movement officially adopted the name Ansar Allah (Partisans of God), signaling its broader religious and ideological goals, though it is still commonly referred to as the Houthis. Their rise to power was not just about gaining political control but also about creating a governance system based on their vision of Islamic rule. They established their own political and military structures in areas under their control, effectively becoming the de facto rulers in much of northern Yemen.
Despite their initial goals being focused on addressing regional grievances and not on creating a proxy state for Iran, their increasingly close ties with Tehran after 2014 have led many observers to view them as part of the wider Iranian-led resistance axis. Iran has provided the Houthis with weapons, training, and political support, although the Houthis have maintained a degree of independence and continue to pursue their own domestic agenda.
The Houthis’ Political and Military Impact on Yemen
The Houthis’ influence has significantly reshaped the political landscape of Yemen. Their military success and subsequent political takeover of Sanaa in 2014 led to the breakdown of Yemen’s fragile state, plunging the country into a civil war that persists today. The conflict has drawn in multiple external actors, most notably Saudi Arabia, which launched a military intervention in 2015 to restore the Hadi government. The Houthis’ resistance to Saudi-led coalition forces has entrenched the conflict, resulting in a protracted and destructive war with devastating humanitarian consequences.
The Houthis have created their own governing structures in areas they control, including systems for revenue collection through taxes on individuals and businesses, the seizure of rival assets, and the implementation of political and military institutions. They have also developed military capabilities to challenge Saudi Arabia’s air superiority, including missile technology and drone warfare, which they have used to strike targets in Saudi Arabia and the UAE. This has demonstrated their ability to project power well beyond Yemen’s borders and has had broader implications for regional security, especially concerning maritime shipping lanes in the Red Sea, which the Houthis have threatened.
Internally, the Houthis’ governance has not been universally accepted. Their rise has alienated large portions of Yemen’s population, particularly in areas outside of their traditional stronghold in northern Yemen. The Houthis have faced resistance not only from Hadi loyalists but also from southern separatists, Al-Qaeda, and other local factions, further complicating the conflict. The group has been increasingly viewed as uncompromising, unwilling to negotiate on disarmament or to accept a peace process that does not secure their role in Yemen’s future governance.
Regional aspects
The Houthi movement’s rise from a regional rebellion to a major political and military force has reshaped Yemen’s internal dynamics and dramatically altered its relationship with external actors. What began as a local struggle against political marginalization has evolved into a protracted conflict with profound national and regional consequences. The Houthis’ ability to maintain control over large areas of Yemen, along with their growing military and political influence, has not only altered Yemen’s future but also deepened the country’s divisions. The Houthis’ uncompromising stance, combined with their ties to Iran, has made a peaceful resolution to the conflict increasingly elusive, and their actions will likely continue to play a significant role in shaping the future of Yemen and its relations with its neighbors.
The Houthi-led takeover of Yemen and their subsequent control over large parts of the country has contributed to the disintegration of Yemen’s already fragile economy. The ongoing conflict has devastated infrastructure, destroyed vital economic sectors, and worsened the humanitarian crisis. The Houthis have maintained control over much of Yemen’s port cities, which has allowed them to generate revenue through customs duties and the importation of supplies, though these funds have often been used to fuel the war effort. The blockade imposed by Saudi Arabia and its allies, intended to weaken the Houthis, has compounded food insecurity and limited access to essential services, leading to widespread famine and the displacement of millions of Yemenis.
The economic crisis has been exacerbated by the collapse of the Yemeni currency, rising unemployment, and the destruction of vital infrastructure such as hospitals, schools, and water treatment plants. The United Nations has declared Yemen the world’s worst humanitarian crisis, with millions of people in urgent need of food, shelter, and medical care. The Houthis’ revenue-seeking policies and the devastating impact of the war on civilian populations have further alienated many Yemenis who were initially sympathetic to the movement’s calls for political reform.
Regional and Global Implications
The Houthis’ rise has had far-reaching regional implications. The war in Yemen has become part of the broader struggle for regional influence between Saudi Arabia and Iran. Saudi Arabia views the Houthis as part of Iran’s expansionist ambitions in the Middle East, seeing their rise as part of a larger Shia crescent that spans from Iran through Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon. This perception has fueled Saudi Arabia’s intervention, seeking to counter what it sees as an Iranian-backed, Shia-led insurgency threatening its southern border.
On the other hand, the Houthis have increasingly aligned themselves with Iran, receiving military and financial support, while cultivating a relationship with other regional actors such as Hezbollah. The Houthis’ ability to threaten shipping lanes in the Bab al-Mandab Strait, a crucial waterway for global oil shipments, has heightened international concerns, particularly from the United States and Israel, who see the Houthis as a growing security threat in the Red Sea region.
Saudi Arabia’s Strategic Interests
Saudi Arabia views Yemen’s stability as directly linked to its own security. The conflict is seen through the lens of regional competition, particularly with Iran. Yemen’s geographical proximity to the kingdom—bordering Saudi Arabia to the south—means that instability there can have direct security implications, including the risk of extremism and weapons smuggling. Historically, Saudi Arabia has sought to exert influence over Yemen’s internal politics, often through financial assistance, tribal alliances, and backing various political factions. In 2015, Saudi Arabia launched a military intervention in Yemen, aiming to restore the internationally recognized government of President Abd-Rabbu Mansour Hadi, which was overthrown by the Houthi rebels, who are backed by Iran. This intervention has spiraled into a costly and prolonged war, characterized as a proxy conflict between Saudi Arabia and Iran.
Saudi Arabia sees the Houthis as Iranian proxies, as they share an anti-Saudi ideology and have received support from Tehran in the form of weapons, military training, and political backing. However, Saudi Arabia’s intervention is also driven by a broader desire to maintain regional dominance and prevent Yemen from falling under Iranian influence. The Saudi-led coalition’s military actions have included airstrikes and a blockade, which has caused a humanitarian disaster. Saudi Arabia’s broader goal is to maintain a weak but stable Yemen, one that it can control through political influence, while avoiding a Yemen that could threaten its own security.
Iran’s Role and Support for the Houthis
Iran has been a significant player in the Yemen conflict, providing substantial support to the Houthi rebels, who adhere to the Zaidi Shia sect of Islam, similar to Iran’s Shia ideology. Since the war escalated in 2015, Iran has supplied the Houthis with weapons, military training, and strategic advice, although the extent of Iranian control over the group is debated. The Houthis maintain a degree of independence and have their own domestic agenda, including political power for the Zaidi Shia community and opposition to foreign intervention, particularly from Saudi Arabia and the United States.
The alliance between the Houthis and Iran has geopolitical significance. Iran views its support for the Houthis as a way to counterbalance Saudi influence in the region and to bog down Saudi Arabia in a costly, protracted war. This alliance has been mutually beneficial, as the Houthis leverage Iranian support to strengthen their position in Yemen, while Iran uses the Houthis as part of its broader regional strategy against Saudi Arabia and the U.S. Iran has established smuggling routes through Oman and other routes to supply the Houthis, further complicating the situation. Despite their ties, the Houthis are not a mere proxy of Iran; they have their own objectives, and their relationship with Tehran is one of convenience rather than full dependence.
The United States’ Involvement
The United States has been involved in Yemen’s conflict primarily through its support for the Saudi-led coalition. This support, which includes arms sales, intelligence sharing, and logistical assistance, has been motivated by U.S. strategic interests in the region, especially the need to counter Iran’s growing influence. The U.S. has also been concerned about the potential for Yemen to become a sanctuary for terrorist groups, particularly al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), which has been active in Yemen since the early stages of the war. As part of its counterterrorism operations, the U.S. has conducted airstrikes and special operations against AQAP and other militants.
In addition to counterterrorism, the U.S. has been concerned with the security of maritime shipping lanes in the Red Sea, which could be threatened by Houthi-controlled forces in Yemen. The U.S. has also provided support to Saudi Arabia as part of a broader regional strategy to contain Iranian influence and ensure stability in the Middle East. While the U.S. has been critical of some aspects of Saudi actions, particularly the humanitarian impact of the war, it remains aligned with Saudi Arabia due to the strategic interests of both nations, including cooperation on regional security issues and the fight against terrorism.
The Houthi Movement’s Agenda
The Houthi movement, originating from Yemen’s northern Saada province, has grown into a significant political and military force since the war began in 2014. The Houthis initially sought to address grievances related to political marginalization, economic underdevelopment, and the lack of political representation for the Zaidi Shia minority in Yemen. Over time, their agenda has broadened to include opposition to foreign intervention and the restoration of what they view as legitimate Yemeni sovereignty, free from Saudi influence.
While the Houthis share certain ideological similarities with Iran, particularly in their opposition to Saudi Arabia and the West, their relationship with Tehran is complex. The Houthis are not mere puppets of Iran; they maintain their own domestic political objectives and have used Iranian support to advance their position in Yemen’s internal power struggles. The Houthis’ slogan, “Death to America, Death to Israel, Curse on the Jews,” echoes Iran’s anti-Western rhetoric, and they have formed part of the so-called “resistance axis” in the Middle East, a coalition of groups opposed to U.S. and Israeli influence.
Israel’s Concerns
While Israel is not directly involved in Yemen’s conflict, it is deeply concerned about the regional implications of the war. The Houthis have expressed strong hostility toward Israel, mirroring the anti-Israel rhetoric of Iran, which has led to fears in Tel Aviv about the proliferation of Iranian weapons and military expertise in the region. Israel is particularly worried that weapons supplied to the Houthis could eventually find their way to Hezbollah in Lebanon or Hamas in Gaza, two groups that share Iran’s ideological alignment and pose a direct security threat to Israel. Additionally, the ongoing conflict could provide Iran with an opportunity to test new weapons and military tactics, which could later be deployed against Israel or its allies.
The Role of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)
Yemen’s instability has had far-reaching effects on the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), particularly Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Oman. The GCC has long been concerned with the potential for the war in Yemen to spill over into the broader Gulf region, especially with the risk of extremism and the smuggling of weapons across borders. Oman, which maintains a neutral stance in the conflict, has played a key role in diplomatic efforts, including facilitating dialogue between the warring parties. It also serves as a smuggling route for Iranian support to the Houthis, although Oman denies any official role in this.
The UAE has also been heavily involved in Yemen, particularly in the south, where it has backed separatist groups in the region, further complicating the situation. The division between Saudi and UAE interests has created further fragmentation in the conflict, with both countries supporting different factions and militias, often leading to clashes between forces that were initially part of the same coalition.
The Humanitarian Crisis
Yemen’s war has led to one of the worst humanitarian crises in the world. The United Nations estimates that tens of thousands of people have been killed, and millions more have been displaced or left in dire conditions. The Saudi-led blockade has severely limited the flow of food, medicine, and other essential supplies, exacerbating the suffering of the Yemeni population. The humanitarian crisis is compounded by the destruction of infrastructure, including hospitals, schools, and water treatment plants, which has created widespread malnutrition and a cholera epidemic.
International efforts to end the war have been stymied by entrenched political and military positions, making a resolution seem elusive. Humanitarian organizations have called for an immediate ceasefire and better access to aid, but the military dynamics on the ground have made it difficult to reach any lasting peace agreement.
Conclusion
Yemen’s war is a deeply entrenched conflict with no simple solution. It is a battleground for broader regional rivalries, particularly between Saudi Arabia and Iran, and has been complicated by the involvement of multiple actors, including the United States, Israel, and the Gulf states. The humanitarian toll has been devastating, and the political and military stalemate continues to fuel instability. As international powers continue to jockey for influence, the prospects for peace remain uncertain, with Yemen caught in the crossfire of larger geopolitical struggles.
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